Citing books, articles, and other sources parenthetically in your paper

Citing books, articles, and other sources parenthetically in your paper
Use the table below to learn how to format various types of MLA parenthetical citations. Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of citation Example
Author's name in text Magny develops this argument (67-69).
Author's name in reference This argument has been developed elsewhere (Magny 67-69).
Quotation found in indirect or "secondhand" source The philosopher Alain states that "admiration is not pleasure but a kind of attention. . ." (qtd. in Magny 66).
Material found in indirect source Alain's words seem to dissociate admiration from pleasure (in Magny 66).
Two authors' names in reference The most notorious foreign lobby in Washington is the "Sugar Mafia" (Howe and Trott 134).
Reference to volume and page in multivolume work As a painter Andrea was "faultless" (Freedberg 1: 98).
Reference to whole volume In his second volume, Freedberg gives an account of Andrea's whole painting career.
Two works by same author on list of works cited Frye connects Burgess' A Clockwork Orange to romance tradition (Secular Scripture 110).
Two locations in same source Dabundo deals with this problem (22, 31).
Two sources cited This controversy has been addressed more than once (Dabundo 27; Magny 69).
Personal interview; name given in text Parsons talked about the need for physical education teachers to understand the relationship between physical activity and fitness.
Corporate author Many different types of organizations in the United States are involved in mediation and dispute resolution (Natl. Inst. for Dispute Resolution).
Electronic source that uses paragraph numbers The semiconductor workplace is highly toxic (Ross, par. 35).
Electronic source that uses chapter and section numbers "Once we start using a tool extensively, it also starts using us" (Rawlins, ch. 1, sec. 1).

Format the Works Cited page
On (a) separate page(s) at the end of your paper, list alphabetically by author every work cited in your paper, using the basic forms illustrated on the previous pages.
List only those sources you actually cited in your paper.
As illustrated on the previous pages, the rule for referring to material in an indirect or secondhand source--that is, for citing when you have not seen the original but have obtained the information from another document that cited the original source--is to list the source your have seen, not the original.
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles, italics are used on these pages because of internet browser limitations.
________________________________________
Title Title the page Works Cited (not Bibliography), at the top of a new page, centered.
________________________________________
Spacing All entries should be double-spaced, unless your assignment instructs you otherwise.
________________________________________
Indentation Begin an entry at the margin; indent the remaining lines five spaces.
________________________________________
Source Titles Underline or italicize titles of books, periodicals, films, and television series (but not individual episodes).
________________________________________
Electronic sources As explained in the sixth edition of the MLA Handbook, a citation for an electronic publication typically has more parts than a citation for a print publication does.

For an electronic source, provide five types of information (as available):
(1) Author's name
(2) Title
(3) Information about print publication
(4) Information about electronic publication
(5) Information about access

Citing books, articles, and other sources parenthetically in your paper
Use the table below to learn how to format various types of MLA parenthetical citations. Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of citation Example
Author's name in text Magny develops this argument (67-69).
Author's name in reference This argument has been developed elsewhere (Magny 67-69).
Quotation found in indirect or "secondhand" source The philosopher Alain states that "admiration is not pleasure but a kind of attention. . ." (qtd. in Magny 66).
Material found in indirect source Alain's words seem to dissociate admiration from pleasure (in Magny 66).
Two authors' names in reference The most notorious foreign lobby in Washington is the "Sugar Mafia" (Howe and Trott 134).
Reference to volume and page in multivolume work As a painter Andrea was "faultless" (Freedberg 1: 98).
Reference to whole volume In his second volume, Freedberg gives an account of Andrea's whole painting career.
Two works by same author on list of works cited Frye connects Burgess' A Clockwork Orange to romance tradition (Secular Scripture 110).
Two locations in same source Dabundo deals with this problem (22, 31).
Two sources cited This controversy has been addressed more than once (Dabundo 27; Magny 69).
Personal interview; name given in text Parsons talked about the need for physical education teachers to understand the relationship between physical activity and fitness.
Corporate author Many different types of organizations in the United States are involved in mediation and dispute resolution (Natl. Inst. for Dispute Resolution).
Electronic source that uses paragraph numbers The semiconductor workplace is highly toxic (Ross, par. 35).
Electronic source that uses chapter and section numbers "Once we start using a tool extensively, it also starts using us" (Rawlins, ch. 1, sec. 1).
Works Cited page entry: Article
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles and other material italicized in print, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Journal Article Dabundo, Laura. "'The Voice of the Mute': Wordsworth
and the Ideology of Romantic Silences."
Christianity and Literature 43.1 (1995): 21-35.
Magazine Article Alpern, David M. "Has Moscow Violated SALT?" Newsweek
22 Oct. 1984: 32.
Newspaper Article Crossette, Barbara. "India Lodges First Charges in Arms
Scandal." New York Times 23 Jan. 1990, natl.
ed.: A4.
Article or Chapter in Anthology Magny, Claude-Edmonde. "Faulkner or Theological
Inversion." Faulkner: A Collection of Critical
Essays. Ed. Robert Penn Warren. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1966. 66-78.
Works Cited page entry: Article
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles and other material italicized in print, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Journal Article Dabundo, Laura. "'The Voice of the Mute': Wordsworth
and the Ideology of Romantic Silences."
Christianity and Literature 43.1 (1995): 21-35.
Magazine Article Alpern, David M. "Has Moscow Violated SALT?" Newsweek
22 Oct. 1984: 32.
Newspaper Article Crossette, Barbara. "India Lodges First Charges in Arms
Scandal." New York Times 23 Jan. 1990, natl.
ed.: A4.
Article or Chapter in Anthology Magny, Claude-Edmonde. "Faulkner or Theological
Inversion." Faulkner: A Collection of Critical
Essays. Ed. Robert Penn Warren. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1966. 66-78.
Works Cited page entry: Book
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Book:
Single Author Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism:
Four Essays. Princeton: Princeton UP,
1957.
Another Work:
Same Author ---. The Secular Scripture. Cambridge:
Harvard UP, 1976.
Book:
Two Authors Howe, Russell Warren, and Sarah Hays Trott.
The Power Peddlers. Garden City:
Doubleday, 1977.
More than Three Authors or Editors Edens, Walter, et al., eds. Teaching
Shakespeare. Princeton: Princeton UP,
1977.
Multivolume Work Freedberg, S. J. Andrea del Sarto. 2 vols.
Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1963.
Book:
Corporate Author National Institute for Dispute Resolution.
Dispute Resolution Resource Directory.
Washington: Natl. Inst. for Dispute
Resolution, 1984.
An Edition Malory, Sir Thomas. King Arthur and his
Knights. Ed. Eugene Vinaver. London:
Oxford UP, 1956.
Anthology Harari, Josue, ed. Textual Strategies. Ithaca:
Cornell UP, 1979.
Article or Chapter in Anthology Magny, Claude-Edmonde. "Faulkner or Theological
Inversion." Faulkner: A Collection of
Critical Essays. Ed. Robert Penn Warren.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966. 66-78.
Second or Later Edition Altick, Richard, and John J. Fenstermaker. The
Art of Literary Research. 4th ed. New York:
Norton, 1993.
Works Cited page entry: Government publication, encyclopedia entry
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining book titles, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Government Publication United States. Federal Maritime Commission.
Hawaiian Trade Study: An Economic Analysis.
Washington: GPO, 1978.
Signed Encyclopedia Entry Foster, John S., Jr. "Nuclear War." The
Encyclopedia Americana. Intl. ed. 1998.
Works Cited page entry: Personal interview, film, tv program
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining material that is italicized in print, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Personal Interview Parsons, Gwynneth. Personal interview.
7 Sept. 2003.
Film Inherit the Wind. Dir. Stanley Kramer.
Perf. Spencer Tracy and Frederic
March. United Artists, 1960.

[Note: If it's the director or another individual associated
with the film that you want to cite, start the entry with that
person's name--here, for example, Kramer, Stanley, dir.]
Television Program Voyage to the Galapagos. Host Alan Alda.
Scientific American Frontiers. PBS.
5 Oct. 1999.
Works Cited page entry: Electronic source
Please note that although the MLA Handbook recommends underlining material that is italicized in print, italics are used in these examples because of internet browser limitations.
Entries for electronic sources include five types of information (as available): (1) author name, (2) title, (3) information about print publication, (4) information about electronic publication, and (5) access information.
Type of source Sample entry in reference list
Online scholarly article Ross, Andrew. "Hacking Away at the
Counterculture." Postmodern Culture
1.1 (1990): 43 pars. 3 May 2003
postmodern_culture/v001.1ross.html>.
An entire online book Rawlins, Gregory J. Moths to the Flame.
Cambridge: MIT P, 1996. MIT Press.
30 Aug 2000 moths/>
A part of an online book Rawlins, Gregory J. Preface. Moths to the
Flame. Cambridge: MIT P, 1996. MIT
Press. 3 Aug. 2000 e-books/moths/preface.html>.
Online scholarly project Suffragists Oral History Project. 1998.
Library, U of California, Berkeley. 20
Jan. 2003 BANC/ROHO/ohonline/suffragists.html>.

(Note: If the site lists an editor [and some do],
insert, e.g., "Ed. John P. Doe." before the first date.)
An entire Internet site Electronic Beowulf. Ed. Kevin Kiernan. 2003.
5 Sept. 2003 eBeowulf/guide.htm>.
Article in online magazine Fallows, James. "The Age of Murdoch." Atlantic
Online Sept. 2003. 10 Oct. 2003
09/fallows.htm>.
Article in online newspaper Goldfarb, Zachary A. "Child Health Dilemma."
Washington Times 31 Aug. 2003. 4 Sept. 2003
20030831-121939-8655r.htm>.

(Note: Some URLs are so long that they are time-consuming to
reproduce accurately. In these cases you may provide the URL
of the site's search page instead--here, for example,
.)
Article in online encyclopedia "Drake, Sir Francis." Columbia Encyclopedia.
2002. Columbia Encyclopedia. 6 July 2003
.
Document from online database "Macromedia, Inc." Hoover's Online. 2002.
Hoover's, Inc. 4 Sept 2003 hoovers.com/free/co/factsheet.xhtml?COID=16658>.
A home page for a course Todar, Kenneth. Host-Parasite Interactions.
Course home page. Spring 2003. Dept. of
Bacteriology, U of Wisconsin. 7 Apr. 2003
.
An e-mail communication Tetslaff, Melissa. E-mail to the author. 17
Sept. 2002.
Newspaper article from online database Young, Judith S.L. "Fadeout; Only a Few Grand
Old Movie Theaters Remain to Remind Us of
Their Golden Age." Newsday 3 Aug. 2003,
Queens ed.: G06. Lexis-Nexis. 5 July 2003















A Guide for Writing Research Papers
based on Styles Recommended by
The American Psychological Association
Prepared by the Humanities Department as part of
The Guide to Grammar and Writing
and the Arthur C. Banks Jr. Library
Capital Community College
Hartford, Connecticut


MATERIALS FROM ELECTRONIC, ONLINE RESOURCES
Online (Internet) resources must be held to the same high standards of scholarly integrity that we impose on material in the library. The difference is that your college library staff is not in charge of cyberspace; in fact, no one is. One problem of searching for materials on the World Wide Web, for instance, is that a search engine (as vastly improved as today's search engines are over their early progenitors) can return a listing from the Yale University English Department alongside a listing from my good Aunt Millie. An online document, Evaluating Web Resources , by Jan Alexander and Marsha Ann Tate of Widener University, is extremely helpful in establishing principles for evaluating Web-based materials. Students need to be cautious about using materials that are not retrievable (e-mail and discussion groups, especially) by others in the community of scholars. Also, students should generally not use or refer readers to URLs that are accessible only with a password (course Websites are usually accessible only with a password); sites accessible by easy and free registration (typical of newspapers) are acceptable, but are not encouraged if they lead to archived materials available only with a fee.
The section on using World Wide Web resources is based on advice given at the Modern Language Association's own web-site (using our own examples, however).
We also recommend "Documenting Internet Sources in MLA Style," by Andrew Harnack of Eastern Kentucky University. Harnack's Website is particularly helpful in that it suggests ways of incorporating quoted material into your paper using verbal clues and "source-reflective statements."
WWW Sites (World Wide Web)
To cite files available for viewing/downloading on the World Wide Web, the MLA suggests giving the following information, including as many items from the list below as are relevant and available.
1. Name of the author, editor, compiler, or translator, reversed for alphabetizing and followed by an abbreviation such as ed., trans., if appropriate
2. Title of the article, poem, short story with the scholarly project, database, periodical; in quotation marks, followed by the description Online posting
3. Title of a book (underlined)
4. Name of the editor, compliler, translator, if not cited earlier.followed by the appropriate abbreviation such as Ed., Trans., etc.
5. Publication information for any print version of this resource (if such a thing exists)
6. Title of the scholarly project, database, periodical or professional or personal site (underlined); or, for a site with no title, a description such as Home page
7. Name of the editor of the scholarly project or database (if available)
8. Version number of the source (If not part of the title) or other identifying number
9. Date of electronic publication, of the latest update, or of posting
10. Page numbers or the number of paragraphs or of other numbered sections of the material (if any)
11. Name of any institution or organization sponsoring or associated with the web site
12. Date when the researcher found access to this resource
13. Electronic address, or URL, of the resource (in ). It is no longer considered necessary to include the protocol (http://) for a WWW download, since most browsers will work without including that protocol. If possible, however, show the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of the web-site in its entirely without break or inappropriate hyphens at line-endings and without spaces. (It's probably a good to provide the URL its own line. If you have to break the URL at the end of a line, do so immediately after a slash mark. If you are confronted with a very long URL, that is probably impossible to use (and might not be available, anyway, on subsequent attempts to get access to it. Instead, use the source page that got you to that page and include appropriate keywords that will yield your specfic source with an appropriate search.)

Note, also, that spelling is critically important in reporting URLs.
For the Works Cited Page
Scholarly Project
The Avalon Project: Articles of Confederation, 1781. Co-Directors William C. Fray and Lisa A. Spar. 1996. Yale Law School. 2 Dec. 2003
.
Professional Site
Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Community College. 4 April 2004
.
Personal Site
Jascot, John. Home page. 1 Dec. 1997. 38 Jan. 2004
.
Course Website
Darling, Charles. Introduction to Literature. Course Website. Jan. 2004–May 2004. Dept. of Humanities, Capital Community College. 20 May 2004
.
Book Published Online
Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Chicago, 1903. Project Bartleby. Ed. Steven van Leeuwen. Dec. 1995. Columbia U. 2 Dec. 2003
.
Poem
Dunbar, William. "The tretis of the twa mariit women and the wedo." The Poems of William Dunbar Ed. James Kinsley. Clarendon Press, New York. 1979. University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. Jan. 1994. U. of Virginia. 2 February 2004
modeng&data=/lv1/Archive/mideng-parsed>.
Article in an Online Journal
Fitter, Chris. "The Poetic Nocturne: From Ancient Motif to Renaissance Genre." Early Modern Literary Studies 3.1 (Sept. 1997): 60 pars. 4 Mar. 2004
.
Article in an Online Magazine
Bowden, Mark. "Lessons of Abu Ghraib." Atlantic 293.5 (June 2004): 12 pars. 24 May 2004
.
Article in a Discussion Group or BLOG
Norton, J.R.. "Torture at Abu Ghraib: A Timeline." The O'Franken Factor (June 2004): 34 pars. 24 May 2004
.
In-text Citation
In parenthetical citations, you will treat online resources the same as you would treat other kinds of resources, according to their type (book, journal article, etc.). The key, remember, is to provide the means necessary for your reader to discover and share in what you have found, whether those resources can be found on a library shelf or in cyberspace.
As Fitter points out, "Landscape description in this period is in transition, from traditional paysage moralisé to pictorialism, and verse such as Saint-Amant's La Solitude, for instance, anticipates Romantic "mood-music" in the age of the emblem book" (59).
Databases on CD-ROM
Libraries often subscribe to databases that provide a wealth of material on CD-ROMs. And many textbooks, nowadays, are accompanied by CDs containing essential and ancillary materials. To cite material accessed from a periodically published database on CD-ROM, use the following models:
For the Works Cited Page
(taken from the MLA Handbook)
Angier, Natalie. "Chemists Learn Why Vegetables are Good for You." New York Times 13 Apr. 1993, late ed.: C1. New York Times Ondisc. CD-ROM. UMI-Proquest. Oct. 1993.
If the material on the CD-ROM does not exist in a printed version, use the following model:
"U.S. Population by Age: Urban and Urbanized Areas." 1990 U.S. Census of Population and Housing. CD-ROM. US Bureau of the Census. 1990.
For a nonperiodical publication on CD-ROM (that is, material that is published one time, without obvious plans for periodic updating):
Poetry Speaks. CD-ROM. Paschen, E. and Rebekah Presson Mosby, eds. Sourcebooks MediaFusion: Naperville, Ill. 2001.
"Albatross." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992.
If you cannot find some of the information required for a CD-ROM citation — for example, the city and name of the publisher — cite what is available. If you get access to material through a library's computer terminal and cannot tell if the source is the library's hard drive or a CD-ROM, indicate "Electronic Medium" instead of CD-ROM.
EBSCO or other online source of full-text articles
To cite full-text articles appearing in online resources such as EBSCO, Periodicals Abstracts, Newspaper Abstracts, or Health Index, list the name of author (if given), title of article, title of journal (or other kind of resource), volume and issue number, date of publication, number of pages or n. pag (for no pagination), publication medium (Online or CD-ROM), name of the computer network (EBSCO, Periodicals Abstracts, etc.), date of access (the date that you actually discovered the material).
For the Works Cited Page
Heinegg, P. "You Still Can't Get There from Here." America 187.12 (21 Oct. 2002): 26. Online. Gale Database. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Capital Comm Coll Lib, Hartford, CT. 26 May 2004.
Anderson, J. "Keats in Harlem." New Republic 204.14 (8 Apr. 1991): n. pag. Online. EBSCO. Capital Comm Coll Lib, Hartford, CT. 29 December 2003.
In-text Citation
"There are no stylistic pyrotechnics, a la John Updike, no convoluted allegories of ego, a la Philip Roth, just quirky, meandering, anticlimactic narratives with perfect-pitch dialogue about a bunch of ordinary male, female and pre-adolescent losers" (Heinegg).
There are other technologies for storing and retrieving informaiton on the World Wide Web — Gopher, Telnet, FTP, MUDs, MOOs, etc. — but most of those have given way to the graphically superior and cross-platform compatibility of hypertext transfer protocol. However, it is possible, for instance, that your instructor has made selected materials available on a server so that you can only retrieve them by FTP (file transfer protocol). If so, there are special citation methods to indicate your resources, and you should consult the latest edition of the MLA Handbook for those formats — or ask your instructor for help.
Reference: Electronic and Online Resources
A. General Information
Electronic correspondences, such as e-mail or discussions on bulletin boards or discussion groups, is regarded by the APA as personal communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not recoverable by others. Personal communications are cited only within the text and not on the reference page.
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following elements are necessary for the reference page:
Author(s), I. (date —or "n.d." if not date is posted). Title of work. (Online), date retrieved. Name of Database or Internet address of the specific document. Specify URLexactly. [Do not end your entry with a period when ending with an URL.]
The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date you retrieved the information on the Internet.
The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material: the protocol (HTTP, Telnet, FTP, etc.), the directory, and the file name. Do not end the path statement with a period after a file name or Web address.
Just about everything of serious interest on the Internet is now available through the hypertext transfer protocol (the familiar HTTP). Some items, however, may still be discovered through FTP, GOPHER, TELNET, etc. (For instance, some universities might enable a professor to archive articles, etc. on a server accessible only through File Transfer Protocol (FTP). If you need to cite such sources, ask your instructor or consult the AP Publication Manual. It is not a good idea to cite resources that are available only with a password, unless that password can be established freely and easily (some online newspapers have password-protected archives like that). Also, do not refer your reader to a course Website that is password protected unless you know that all your potential readers have access to that material.
B. Sample References
Online article
Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. (1993. October 2). Central vein occlusion study of photocoagulation: Manual of operations [675 paragraphs]. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials [On-line serial]. Available: Doc No. 92
On-line abstract
You can cite an entire Web site within your text, but do not include it in your list of References. For instance, you could say something incredibly profound you learned from this Web page, and cite the URL at the end of the paragraph (http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/apa/). If a line-break is necessary when you cite an URL, make the break immeidately after a slash mark and carefully avoid the insertion of a hyphen where none is appropriate.
ElectronicDatabase
College and public libraries subscribe to electronic databases such a sEBSCO, LexisNexis, OCLC, WilsonWeb, SIRS, etc. There are also online databases such as ERIC, PsychINFO, and Public Affairs Information Service (PAIS). These databases contain full-text articles and article abstracts.
Reference: Dissertation or Dissertation Abstract
When you have used an abstract of the dissertion found on microfilm in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI). If you are using a microfilm source, include in parentheses at the end of your entry, the university microfilm number.
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 4465. (AAD44-8794)
When you have used the actual dissertation (usually from the shelves of the University where it was written, sometimes obtained through interlibrary loan):
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT.
Reference: Magazines/Periodicals
Wheatcroft, G. (2004, June). The Tragedy of Tony Blair. The Atlantic, 293 56–72.
Thomas, E. & Hosenball, M. (2004, May 31). Bush's Mr. Wrong: The Rise and Fall of Chalabi. Newsweek, 143, 22–32.
Use inclusive page numbers. Do not use the abbreviations "p." or "pp."
Reference: Scholarly Journal
Many scholarly journals number their pages consecutively throughout a given volume. Thus, volume one might end on page 345 and the first page of volume two would be number 345. Do not use p. or pp. to indicate page numbers. Notice that proper nouns are capitalized in an APA-style title, but other words are not. A comma separates the title of the journal from the volume number, but the volume number (as well as the comma that follows) is also italicized.
Christie, John S. (1993) Fathers and virgins: Garcia Marquez's Faulknerian Chronicle of a Death Foretold. Latin American Literary Review, 13, 21–29.
If that article were found in a journal in which each issue has pages numbered separately (each issue begins with a page 1), the issue number is given in parentheses but not in italics after the volume number.
Christie, John S. (1993) Fathers and virgins: Garcia Marquez's Faulknerian Chronicle of a Death Foretold. Latin American Literary Review, 13(3), 21–29.
Reference: Newspaper Articles, Editorials
Letters to the Editor, etc.
If the article is "signed" (that is, you know the author's name), begin with that author's name. (Notice how discontinuous pages are noted and separated by commas.) Do not omit the "The" from the title of a newspaper (unlike the MLA technique).
Poirot, C. (2004, March 17). HIV prevention pill goes beyond 'morning after'. The Hartford Courant, pp. F1, F6.
If the author's name is not available, begin the reference with the headline or title in the author position.
New exam for doctor of future. (1989, March 15). The New York Times, p. B-10.
If the text being cited is from an editorial or letter to the editor indicate the nature of the source in brackets after the title and date.
Silverman, P.H. (2004, June). Genetic Engineering [Letter to the editor]. The Atlantic, 293 14.
Reference: Nonprint Resources (Film, Recording, Video, television or radio program, etc.)
The source is identified in brackets after the title
Redford, R. (Director). (1980). Ordinary people [Film]. Hollywood: Paramount.
(film with limited circulation):
Holdt, D. (Producer), & Ehlers, E. (Director). (2002). River at High Summer: The St. Lawrence [Film]. (Available from Merganser Films, Inc., 61 Woodland Street, Hartford, CT 06105)
(Cassette):
Lake, F. L. (Author and speaker). (1989). Bias and organizational decision making [Cassette]. Gainesville: Edwards.
(Television program):
Safer, M. (Narrator). (2004). Torture at Abu Ghraib [Television broadcast]. Hartford: WFSB.
(Musical recording):
Barber, S. (1995). Cello Sonata. On Barber [CD]. New York: EMI Records Ltd.
Reference: Personal Interview, Phone Conversation, Letter, Non-archived E-Mail, etc.
Because this material is not recoverable (i.e., it is not possible for someone else to see or hear it), it should not be listed in the list of References. It can, however, be cited parenthetically within the text. It is extremely important that what is cited in this way be legitimate and have scholarly integrity.
(interview):
Wilbur finds himself sometimes surprised by the claims of religiosity made by contemporaries. (personal letter, March 28, 1977)

(phone conversation):
According to Connie May Fowler, the sources for her novel Sugar Cane were largely autobiographical (personal phone conversation, July 22, 2003)
Reference: Classroom Lecture
Like personal interviews and phone conversations, material presented in a classroom lecture is regarded as non-retrievable data. A lecture, therefore, should be cited within the text but not be included in your References. The model below could also be used for more formal lecture settings.
In an Introduction to Literature lecture at Capital Community College on April 14, 2004, Professor Charles Darling described William Carlos Williams' poem as a barnyard snapshot (C.W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).
If the lecturer distributed material at the lecture, you could cite that resource in your References:
Darling, C.W. (2004, April). Images at Work in the Poetry of William Carlos Williams. Outline presented in a classroom lecture at Capital Community College, Hartford, CT.
Reference: Government Documents
Report from the Government Printing Office, corporate author.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Reports from a Document and Deposit Service (NTIS, ERIC) other than U.S. government
Examples:
Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral techniques to control hyperaggressiveness in young children (CYC Report No. 80-3562). Washington, DC: Council on Young Children. (NTIS No. P880-14322).
Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforcer pattern scores? (Report No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182 465)
Reference: Electronic and Online Resources
A. General Information
Electronic correspondences, such as e-mail or discussions on bulletin boards or discussion groups, is regarded by the APA as personal communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not recoverable by others. Personal communications are cited only within the text and not on the reference page.
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following elements are necessary for the reference page:
Author(s), I. (date —or "n.d." if not date is posted). Title of work. (Online), date retrieved. Name of Database or Internet address of the specific document. Specify URLexactly. [Do not end your entry with a period when ending with an URL.]
The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date you retrieved the information on the Internet.
The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material: the protocol (HTTP, Telnet, FTP, etc.), the directory, and the file name. Do not end the path statement with a period after a file name or Web address.
Just about everything of serious interest on the Internet is now available through the hypertext transfer protocol (the familiar HTTP). Some items, however, may still be discovered through FTP, GOPHER, TELNET, etc. (For instance, some universities might enable a professor to archive articles, etc. on a server accessible only through File Transfer Protocol (FTP). If you need to cite such sources, ask your instructor or consult the AP Publication Manual. It is not a good idea to cite resources that are available only with a password, unless that password can be established freely and easily (some online newspapers have password-protected archives like that). Also, do not refer your reader to a course Website that is password protected unless you know that all your potential readers have access to that material.
B. Sample References
Online article
Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. (1993. October 2). Central vein occlusion study of photocoagulation: Manual of operations [675 paragraphs]. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials [On-line serial]. Available: Doc No. 92
On-line abstract
You can cite an entire Web site within your text, but do not include it in your list of References. For instance, you could say something incredibly profound you learned from this Web page, and cite the URL at the end of the paragraph (http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/apa/). If a line-break is necessary when you cite an URL, make the break immeidately after a slash mark and carefully avoid the insertion of a hyphen where none is appropriate.
Electronic Database
College and public libraries subscribe to electronic databases such a sEBSCO, LexisNexis, OCLC, WilsonWeb, SIRS, etc. There are also online databases such as ERIC, PsychINFO, and Public Affairs Information Service (PAIS). These databases contain full-text articles and article abstracts.
Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a Reference page. There are three major differences, however. First, you can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references, telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise, economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related, fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Documents connections between children's lack of attention in school and hours of television watching; provides scientific evidence of changed viewing habits over ten years.

BEYOND THE MLA HANDBOOK: DOCUMENTING ELECTRONIC SOURCES ON THE INTERNET

BEYOND THE MLA HANDBOOK: DOCUMENTING ELECTRONIC SOURCES ON THE INTERNET

Andrew Harnack


Gene Kleppinger

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY
"In the world of honest scholarship, no rule is more revered than the citation."
--Kavita Varma
Abstract
Responding to the needs of writers, teachers, students, and scholars using the MLA style of documentation, professional organizations and researchers are in the process of creating citation conventions that seek to demonstrate efficient and unambiguous reference to Internet sources. Going beyond the limited recommendations in The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (1995), Janice Walker's "MLA-Style Citations for Electronic Sources," for example, presents a largely admirable style for documentation, worthy of endorsement by the Alliance for Computers and Writing. In spite of its usefulness, however, a close examination of the style reveals several noteworthy ambiguities and infelicities. Four problematic areas can be identified: (1) distinguishing between Internet addresses and command sequences, (2) distinguishing between dates of publication and dates of user access, (3) distinguishing between addresses of publication and addresses for retrieval, and (4) providing for the "openness" of many Internet pathways to the same (authentic) source. After examining each of the four problem areas, we recommend additions and emendations to Walker's models that help eliminate ambiguities. Each of our recommendations improves the usefulness and clarity of individual models. Finally, in "Citing the Sites: MLA-Style Guidelines and Models for Documenting Internet Sources," we provide a style sheet for teachers, students, researchers, and scholars whose citation standards are based on MLA-style documentation principles and models. "Citing the Sites" may be distributed as a self-contained guideline providing checklists and models for all current instances of Internet citation.
Because this essay presents citation models that contain long strings, users are advised to expand their browser windows as wide as possible. Author references in this document are linked to their Works Cited entries. Netscape users who follow those links can use the "Back" screen button or menu item to return to the text. Originally presented by the authors at the 23rd Annual Conference, Kentucky Philological Association, 1 March 1996. Latest revision of this document: 10 June 1996.
Contents
• Introduction
• The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
• Student handbooks
• Other publications
• Janice Walker's "MLA-Style Citations"
• Four ambiguities to be clarified
• Distinguishing between Internet addresses and command sequences
• Distinguishing between dates of publication and dates of user access
• Distinguishing between addresses of publication and addresses for retrieval
• Providing for many Internet pathways to the same source
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Works Cited
• Style Sheet: "Citing the Sites"
Introduction
When a recent USA Today headline announces that scholars are struggling to maintain "standards in cyberspace" for the creation of footnotes (Varma), one realizes that the usual concerns of pedantic instructors teaching documented writing have reached interesting levels of national attention. When Writing Program Administrators receive phone calls from colleagues asking for help on how to cite locations on the Internet, one begins also to realize that instructors, students, and scholars, returning from cyberspace, are in fact grappling with new problems about crediting information sources located in webbed, digital environments. Indeed, as researchers in the humanities and arts find it necessary to document sources of information that appears flickeringly on a monitor's screen, perhaps "here today and gone tomorrow," the need for sound citation advice beyond that within the MLA Handbook is real.
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The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
All of which is not to deny that the fourth and latest edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is not helpful in citing some electronic sources. Section 4.8 and 4.9 provide useful descriptions of and models for documenting "CD-ROMS and Other Portable Databases," along with on-line databases accessed through commercial computer services such as "CompuServe, Nexis, OCLC, and Prodigy" or the Internet as sources. Moreover, the MLA Handbook is useful for its suggestions on citing literary and historical documents available online while, at the same time, cautioning that one must "remember that not all texts are equally reliable or authoritative" (4.9.3a). For guides to other "numerous resources on computer networks," the MLA Handbook recommends popular books such as Ed Krol's The Whole Internet, in addition to "important online sources" found in electronic journals, newsletters, and moderated conferences and discussion lists. But the MLA Handbook repeatedly acknowledges that there will be instances when "no specific printed source or printed analogue" (4.9.2) is available and one must therefore cite "what is available," while trying to include, when possible, the author's name, title of the material (in quotation marks), date of the material, database title, publication medium (Online), name of the computer service, and date of access. And that's it. Unlike style manuals for those using the APA-style of documentation (Note 1), the MLA Handbook provides no assistance for referencing information on the World Wide Web (WWW), that is obtained by File Transfer Protocol (FTP), HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), listservs, and telnet sites; it provides no models for texts generated during synchronous conferencing, texts archived and retrieved from GOPHER sites, or for communications posted by e-mail or within newsgroups. Significantly, it models no references to home pages or other hypertext documents.
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Student handbooks
Student handbooks dependent on MLA guidelines not unexpectedly show a corresponding scarcity of model. The third edition of The St. Martin's Handbook, for example, in its discussion of electronic sources, while admitting that "documenting [such sources] remains tricky," offers less than two full pages of advice (Lunsford and Connors 640-42), all of it an abbreviated version of the MLA recommendations. Other handbooks such as Bonnie Carter and Craig Skates's Rinehart Handbook for Writers and Alfred Rosa and Paul Eschholz's Writer's Brief Handbook are similarly indisposed to offer help of useful scope. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers presents the models suggested by Janice Walker (which are discussed at length below), labeling them "ACW style" because they have been endorsed by the Alliance for Computers and Writing, but advising students to check with individual instructors before using them (671); as argued below, these guidelines are ambiguous and potentially misleading. As of the spring, 1996, no professional style manual or student handbook presents an adequate set of recommendations or display of models as to how one effectively and efficiently documents online sources in a fashion consistent with MLA principles of documentation. (Note 2)
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Other publications
Professional organizations and responsible publishers are, however, aware of the need for citation models. But Lisa Guernsey describes their dilemma:
Standards for print materials, such as formats for publication dates, page numbers, and even punctuation, become confusing when applied to sources on the Internet, which may have no publication date or page numbers, and may require unconventional brackets for punctuation.
The usual authorities, which include professional associations such as the Modern Language Association and the American Psychological Association, are still debating specific standards for scholars in their disciplines. The Chicago Manual of Style, among other reference books, simply refers readers to an international standards organization, which is still struggling to reach agreement on new guidelines after five years of painstaking debate. (A20)
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Janice Walker's "MLA-Style Citations"
Among those attempting to establish workable conventions, Guernsey describes the work of two researchers whose efforts may prove valuable for those promoting, using, and teaching the MLA-style of documentation. Melvin E. Page, a history scholar and experienced listserv moderator from East Tennessee State University, has created his own set of guidelines. Employing Kate Turabian's Chicago-style citation principles, Page acknowledges in his headnote that his "guide is not intended to be definitive [and that] corrections, additions, comments, suggestions, and criticisms are therefore welcome." Another, and perhaps more widely publicized (at least among teachers of writing) new guide is Janice Walker's "MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources," a style sheet endorsed by the Alliance for Computers and Writing. Walker describes the need and how her guide responds:
We need some standardization of citation references, and this compilation is, therefore, an attempt to address this need. As we move out of the Gutenberg era and into the electronic age, more and more work is being published electronically that may never appear in conventional print medium. I have, therefore, compiled a listing of electronically-available information sites that have not been addressed by MLA, attempting where possible to adhere to formats already delineated by MLA. Please note, however, that since punctuation is an important part of many internet addresses, certain conventions of citation punctuation have necessarily been changed and/or adapted (for instance, placing the date in parentheses and omitting trailing periods for internet addresses).
When inventorying sites not addressed by MLA--FTPs, WWW home pages, locations for synchronous communications, GOPHERs, e-mail, listservs, and newslists--Walker recommends the source data (in order) to be given and provides a model entry. Here, for example, is her model for a hypertext document retrieved from the World Wide Web:
To cite files available for viewing/downloading via the World Wide Web, give the author's name (if known), the full title of the work in quotation marks, the title of the complete work if applicable in italics, the full http address, and the date of visit.
Burka, Lauren P. "A Hypertext History of Multi-User Dimensions."
MUD History. http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/1pb/mud-history.html
(5 Dec. 1994).
Appearing to satisfy the demands the scholarly citation, the model suggests that one might replicate its style without difficulty because it presents its information economically and conveys important data in readable fashion.
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Four ambiguities to be clarified
Difficulties, however, remain. Although Walker, as Page and others (Note 3), have devised potentially useful ways to accomplish the mechanics of citing electronic sources, nevertheless, some noteworthy ambiguities and infelicities appear. Four problematic areas can be identified: (1) distinguishing between Internet addresses and command sequences, (2) distinguishing between dates of publication and dates of user access, (3) distinguishing between addresses of publication and addresses for retrieval, and (4) providing for the "openness" of many Internet pathways to the same (authentic) source.
1. Distinguishing between Internet addresses and command sequences
One of the most interesting peculiarities of citations for electronic sources is that the electronic address in the citation is an essential tool for retrieving the document. The convenience of having exact references to electronic sources so readily available, however, presents writers with a special burden regarding absolute precision. Extraneous spaces, missing spaces, errors in upper/lower case characters, and misleading symbols in addresses will usually cause failure in retrieval. This principle necessitates some deviations from ordinary citation typography, such as in the "normal" use of periods and other punctuation marks. As mentioned earlier, Walker's models recognize the need to omit "trailing periods for internet addresses," which is one way to correct a serious defect in the citation styles advocated by Li and Crane. One area of inadequate coverage in the current style guides, however, concerns the distinction between accessing an Internet document through its Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and through a sequence of commands, directory paths and/or menu selections. Walker's citation for "Burka," shown above, contains a typical URL--"http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/lpb/mud-history.html"--while her examples for citing Telnet and Gopher documents illustrate the command-pathway structure:
Gomes, Lee. "Xerox's On-Line Neighborhood: A Great Place to Visit."
Mercury News 3 May 1992. telnet lambda.parc.xerox.com 8888,
@go #50827, press 13 (5 Dec. 1994).
Quittner, Joshua. "Far Out: Welcome to Their World Built of MUD."
Published in Newsday, 7 Nov. 1993. gopher /University of Koeln/
About MUDs, MOOs and MUSEs in Education/Selected Papers/newsday(5 Dec. 1994).
While the URL specification is rapidly becoming a universally accepted standard for Internet addresses, the command-pathway mode will be encountered frequently for some time to come, since many well-known programs such as Gopher, Telnet, and FTP are not designed to accept or report URLs. Some citation stylists have suggested prefixing the expression "URL:" to identify such strings, but with the gradual acceptance of angle brackets as standard delimiters for URLs and for e-mail addresses, such prefixing is "'ugly and unnecessary'" (Michael Quinion, qtd. in Wainwright).
Walker avoids the problem of showing extraneous periods in document citations simply by leaving them out, using white space alone to separate the electronic address from other bibliographic elements. This eliminative approach is not possible with other troublesome characters such as spaces and slashes. Spaces are forbidden in UNIX file names and in URLs, but are frequently encountered in command-pathway expressions as in the "Gomes" and "Quittner" citations shown above. There is no concise and simple way to show in printed text which spaces are significant and which are not. Line breaks and indentations create additional trouble because their "white space" gives no clue as to whether a "space" character is implied. Furthermore, file naming conventions prevent the use of hyphens, slashes or other common symbols to indicate continuation without a space. The best solution appears to be to delimit (enclose) a continuous string with some specially selected characters, and to leave command-pathway expressions as free-flowing text. The Internet standard for URL delimitation uses angle brackets (Berners-Lee et al.), and there are no good reasons to substitute square brackets or parentheses (as in Hoemann) for this purpose. If angle-bracket delimitation becomes the accepted standard, it will again be possible to use periods "as usual" in printed citations to separate bibliographic elements; that is, Walker's "Burka" citation might become:
Burka, Lauren P. "A Hypertext History of Multi-User Dimensions."
MUD History. 1993. mud-history.html> (5 Dec. 1994).
The slashes in a URL are significant characters in that that the characters themselves are part of the electronic address. The "Quittner" citation above shows how slashes are also used by convention to separate the user's on-screen menu selections; in other words, users are expected to know that such slashes are not characters to be typed. Here again, the adoption of angle-bracket delimiters for URLs--while leaving command-pathways as open text--helps to reduce ambiguity. These difficulties should disappear when URLs become the sole standard for citation practice.
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2. Distinguishing between dates of publication and dates of user access
Many online documents possess an attribute we might call "invisible revisability," the process by which an electronic document can be altered, moved, or deleted by the author or by computer system managers, without any publically-accessible trail of evidence. For example, many World Wide Web authors state candidly that their pages are under constant construction, which means that the information contained there might change frequently and without notice. Some authors report a "last changed" date for each document, but very few include edition numbers or revision histories. While it is true that many other electronic documents are "archived" in ways that make their texts secure--archived messages from an e-mail discussion list, for example--the archives themselves are subject to changes in access path or timed deletion. The presence of "invisible revisability" as an attribute of online documents requires therefore that their scholarly citation refer to the user's date of access as well as any publication date.
The available citation guides show a wide variation in appreciating the necessity for citing both publication and user-access dates. Li and Crane provide space for both elements; Walker recognizes the need to specify dates of access for most items, but provides no consistent direction for including publication dates. Page, on the other hand, ignores user-access dates, permitting some absurd juxtapositions. Here is Page's suggested citation for a Gopher copy of the 1860 Democratic Platform: (Note 4)
"Democratic Party Platform, 1860." .
[Path: Wiretap Online Library/Civic & Historical/Political
Platforms of the US/Democratic Platform 1860]. 18 June 1860.
While the publication date is clearly an important bibliographic element, its position in this format leaves it too closely associated with the command-pathway expression. The Walker-style analogue, with the publication date included, would be:
"Democratic Party Platform, 1860." 18 June 1860. gopher
wiretap.spies.com /Wiretap Online Library/Civic & Historical/
Political Platforms of the U.S. (25 Feb. 1996).
Such a display of information not only records both publication and user-access dates, but it does so without confusion.
Walker's citation style focuses attention mainly on user-access dates, but there is presently an inconsistency in her models for citing e-mail correspondence, where the date of the message is shown in the location used in all other cases for the user-access date:
Seabrook, Richard H.C. "Community and Progress."
cybermind@jefferson.village.virginia.edu (22 Jan. 1994).
Similarly, Li and Crane surprisingly advise placing the "Date of message" at the end of a citation for personal e-mail, while the date for discussion-list messages is placed immediately after the subject and the user-access date at the end. Page, showing no concern at all for user-access dates, places the publication date at the end of every citation.
This confusion is not merely pedantic because the successful retrieval of list messages (for example) depends on knowing accurately the date of the message. If we combine the productive suggestions of Walker and of Li and Crane and delimit the Internet address with angle brackets, the citation for "Seabrook" would be as follows:
Seabrook, Richard H. C. "Community and Progress." 22 Jan. 1994.
(22 Jan. 1994).
Clarity is enhanced by associating the message date closely with the author and subject, and leaving the user-access date (if any) for the final element. For reasons to be explained in the next section (3.), however, this citation is incomplete. Including the essential data for retrieval (as advocated here), the final form for "Seabrook" looks like this:
Seabrook, Richard H. C. "Community and
Progress." 22 Jan. 1994. virginia.edu> via
(22 Jan. 1994).
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3. Distinguishing between addresses of publication and addresses for retrieval
A document's URL designates both its storage location--the "site" of its publication--and the means for its direct retrieval. Correspondence to an e-mail discussion list does not fit this model, however, because the address for the list is ordinarily different from the address for archive retrieval. None of the existing style guides appear to recognize this distinction or provide a way to specify both addresses in a citation. Through failing to recognize the separate functions of these addresses, some citation stylists are advocating formats that are strongly misleading, as when Li and Crane direct a writer to prefix the words "Available E-mail:" indifferently to either the list address or the retrieval address.
An example of an e-mail discussion list is "acw-l," maintained by the Alliance for Computers and Writing. Anyone with an Internet address may subscribe to this list and post messages to it. It would be a mistake to suggest that the Alliance stands in the role of "publisher" for this list, in the sense of being responsible for what is posted there. Publication on the list is accomplished simply as subscribers send messages to the list's e-mail address, , and as the messages are distributed and archived by the list management software, which in this case is the LISTPROC program. Hence it is appropriate to cite the list address--rather than a particular message-author's address--as the publication address for a list message. (The models given below do include the author's e-mail address, after the author's name, to permit authentication.) But it might be very unfortunate for the list's subscribers if a citation format were to leave the impression that cited messages might be retrieved through the list address. Retrieval should be facilitated instead by citing the appropriate address for the list's archive, which may then be followed by the usual date of access. In order to distinguish the two addresses and yet indicate their connection, we choose to use the ancient word via. As an example, consider the following potentially misleading citation from Li and Crane:
RRECOME. "Top Ten Rules of Film Criticism." 1 Apr. 1995.
Online posting. Discussions on All Forms of Cinema.
Available E-mail: CINEMA-L@american.edu. 1 Apr. 1995.
Incorporating Walker's simplifications and this paper's suggestions for delimitation, date specification and address differentiation this citation might become:
RRECOME. "Top Ten Rules of Film
Criticism." 1 Apr. 1995. via
(1 Apr.1995).
It is important to note that the address for a list's archive will not always be an e-mail address. Such is the case for acw-l, where the archive is accessible not only through the LISTPROC software but also through the Alliance's WWW pages. The following three citations illustrate how different stylists might treat the same acw-l message.
• per Li and Crane:
Carbone, Nick. "NN 960126: Followup to Don's comments about citing
URLs." 26 Jan. 1996. Online posting. Alliance for Computers
and Writing. Available E-mail: ACW-L@unicorn.acs.ttu.edu.
28 Jan. 1996.
• per Walker:
Carbone, Nick. "NN 960126: Followup to Don's comments about citing
URLs." acw-l@unicorn.acs.ttu.edu (26 Jan. 1996).
• as advocated here:
Carbone, Nick. "NN 960126: Followup to
Don's comments about citing URLs." 26 Jan. 1996. acs.ttu.edu> via (17 Feb. 1996).
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4. Providing for the "openness" of many Internet pathways to the same (authentic) source.
At the core of the concept of hypertext is the potential for linking from one document to another indefinitely. One consequence of this feature, as implemented in the design of protocols for the World Wide Web, is that a particular computer file is accessible by "dynamic" addressing through an indeterminate number of paths, with no single path claiming precedence over another. A lengthy URL like might seem to indicate that the target document lies "deep" within a hierarchical structure, as in looking inside drawers within drawers, but in terms of computer access, such a label is only one memory address among many, and functionally equivalent in "depth" to all the others. (In fact, many URLs do not represent the actual file structure on any machine, but serve instead as "aliases" or "lookups" for actual directories.) Users of computer spreadsheets may find the analogy of URLs with spreadsheet "cells" helpful in grasping this idea: while each cell has an absolute reference, that unique reference stands for a memory location and not "the data itself," and there are an indefinite number of ways to provide relative references to any one cell. Furthermore, by linking one spreadsheet to another, the boundaries defining a "single" spreadsheet become fuzzy, in the same way that the concept of a "whole work" defies the core concept of hypertext.
For citation practice, the equivalence of all relative addressing means that there is no "authentic" URL to cite for a given source. Some URLs may be preferred because they are shorter than others, or because the address contains "relevant" words. For example, when citing an adoption document, on might choose a URL that contains "www.adoption.org" for an adoption document, regardless of where the file is actually stored; such a reference is legitimate because it is in principle impossible for any user to find out the absolute address for the "actual" file.
The essential open-endedness of hypertext linking means that there is no meaningful distinction between "primary" and "secondary" addresses. It also means that the concept of a "whole work" is meaningless for many Internet documents, except as an author groups a set of related files under a single title. More significant for citation purposes is the likelihood that one might prefer to cite a source "indirectly," that is, pointing to a document that contains a link to a relevant document rather than the document itself. For example, if one wanted to cite only one file in a collection, but also make it convenient for users to understand the "context" of the collection and perhaps access other similar documents, it would be helpful to have a parallel with the MLA Handbook's treatment of indirect references (5.4.7). The analog for "quoting" on the Internet is "linking," so an appropriate citation descriptor might be "linked from," or Lkd. (paralleling "qtd." in one's text and "Trans." in a Works Cited entry; Gibaldi 5.4.7; 4.6.23), together with any "path" details: (Note 5)
Miller, Allison. "Allison Miller's Home Page." Lkd. EKU
Honors Program Home Page, at "Personal Pages."
(11 Nov.1995).
The inclusion of this linkage permits Web-users to locate both the source and the collection with ease.
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Conclusion
We should "bear in mind" as Walker suggests "that, like the Internet itself, the information sources are in a constant state of flux and therefore, [our style] will also need to change as the sites themselves proliferate [as we] adapt to the new era of electronic print" ("MLA-Style"). As we develop citation styles, we therefore recommend the following interim practices.
• Require students to print copies of cited material so instructors and other readers may confirm the accuracy of quoted, summarized, and/or paraphrased online information. If the print options do not automatically include Web addresses, require students to provide such information as attachments to their texts.
• Collaborate with communities of scholars and students regarding the application of developing conventions so that emerging problems may be resolved. (The authors welcome responses to this paper; e-mail links are provided below.)
• Be patient with ourselves as scholars and students. This last admonition is especially important because as the quantity and range of online information becomes broader and more accessible, the complexities of documentation also increase. Because technology will always outpace our ability to agree upon the mechanics of citing modes of delivery, kinds of sources, and retrievabilty, scholars and students will always be behind the learning curve in composing adequate documentation styles. Teachers in particular need to be sensitive to the frustrations of students who will increasingly be using online sources. As teachers and students work together and learn how to cite online documents, we will always be beyond the MLA Handbook, in a space that calls for understanding and charity.
Dr. Andrew Harnack, Eastern Kentucky University
Dr. Eugene Kleppinger, Eastern Kentucky University
________________________________________
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Notes
1 Admittedly, the latest edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (1994) does not offer any advice for citing electronic sources. Importantly, however, Xia Li and Nancy Crane's revision of Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information (1993) provides a wealth of advice and a remarkably full set of models for writers using the APA-style of citation. A new edition, retitled as The Official Internet World Guide to Electronic Styles: A Handbook to Citing Electronic Information, will be publshed in Spring 1996. RETURN
2 The third of edition of Writing Research Papers by one of us (Harnack), forthcoming in the fall of 1996, will contain a chapter on guidelines for electronic citation that incorporates both the recommendations in Walker's "MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources" and suggestions for improving the style as proposed in this essay. RETURN
3 Notable style guides besides those mentioned in the text are by Haines Brown, Maurice Crouse, Mark Wainwright and Peggy Whitley. A wide variety of guides are listed in the "Field Guide" and in Jan Tent's collection. RETURN
4 Page's original has "U. S." where the current Gopher pathway shows "US" with no periods. The suggested citation does not include the word "Gopher," and Page gives no clear instruction for telling the user which protocol to use. RETURN
5 This concern was discussed by Walker and Kleppinger in private e-mail. RETURN
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Works Cited
American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: APA, 1994.
Berners-Lee, T., et al. "RFC 1738: Uniform Resource Locators
(URL)." December 1994. (25 Feb. 1996).
Brown, Haines. "Citations of Electronic Documents in an Electronic
Document." (29 May 1996).
Carter, Bonnie, and Craig Skates. The Rinehart Handbook for
Writers. 4th ed. NY: Harcourt Brace, 1996.
Crouse, Maurice. "Citing Electronic Information in History Papers."
12 Apr. 1996. (29 May 1996).
"Field Guide to Sources On, About and On the Internet: Citation
Formats." 18 Dec. 1995. (7 Feb. 1996).
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed.
NY: MLA, 1995.
Guernsey, Lisa. "Cyberspace Citations." Chronicle of Higher
Education 12 Jan. 1996: A18,20.
Hairston, Maxine, and John J. Ruszkiewicz. The Scott, Foresman
Handbook for Writers. 4th ed. NY: HarperCollins, 1996.
Harnack, Andrew. Writing Research Papers. 3rd Ed. San Diego, CA:
Greenhaven, forthcoming in the fall of 1996. [This edition will contain a chapter on citing electronic sources with MLA-style principles of documentation.]
Hoemann, George H. "Electronic Style--Elements of Citation."
Lkd. Electronic Style Page, at "Continue" and "Citation Elements." 3 Nov. 1995. (29 May 1996).
Kleppinger, Gene. "MLA-Style Citations." 11 Nov. 1995.
E-mail to Janice Walker.
Krol, Ed. The Whole Internet: User's Guide and Catalog.
Sebastopol, CO: O'Reilly & Associates, 1992.
Li, Xia, and Nancy Crane. "Electronic Sources: MLA Style of Citation."
29 Apr. 1996. (29 May 1996).
---. Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information.
Westport: Meckler, 1993.
---. The Official Internet World Guide to Electronic Styles: A
Handbook to Citing Electronic Information. Westport: Meckler. forthcoming.
Lunsford, Andrea, and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook.
3rd ed. NY: St. Martin's, 1995.
Page, Melvin E. "A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources in
History and the Humanities." Ver. 2.1, 20 Feb. 1996. (29 May 1996).
Rosa, Alfred, and Paul Eschholz. The Writer's Brief Handbook.
2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996.
Tent, Jan. "Citation Guides for Electronic Documents." International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions [IFLA]. 15 Mar. 1996. (29 May 1996).
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations. 5th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987.
Varma, Kavita. "Footnotes in electronic age: scholars struggle to
maintain standards in cyberspace." USA Today 7 Feb. 1996:7D.
Wainwright, Mark. "Citation Style for Internet Sources." 12 February
1996. (29 May 1996).
Walker, Janice R. "MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources."
Ver. 1.0, Rev. Apr. 1995. (7 Feb. 1996).
---. "Re: MLA-Style Citations."
11 Nov. 1995. Personal e-mail. (11 Nov. 1995).
Whitley, Peggy. "Citing Online Sources: Internet and Westlaw." 2 Feb.
1996. (7 Feb. 1996).


















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Citing the Sites:
MLA-Style Guidelines and Models
for Documenting Internet Sources
Version 1.3
These guidelines and models are based upon Janice Walker s "MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources (Endorsed by the Alliance for Computers and Writing)," Vers. 1.0; it is revised as recommended by Andrew Harnack and Gene Kleppinger in "Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Sources on the Internet" .
Style Sheet Contents
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Sites
2. World Wide Web (WWW) Sites
3. Telnet Sites
4. Synchronous Communications
5. GOPHER Sites
6. Listserv messages
7. Newsgroup (USENET) messages
8. E-mail messages
9. Linkage data

1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Sites
To cite files for downloading via ftp, provide the following information:
• the author's name (if known)
• the full title of the document in quotation marks
• the date of publication (if available)
• the abbreviation ftp
• the address of the ftp site, with no closing punctuation
• the full path to follow to find the paper, with no closing punctuation
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Bruckman, Amy. "Approaches to Managing Deviant Behavior in Virtual
Communities." ftp ftp.media.mit.edu pub/asb/papers/deviance-chi-94
(4 Dec. 1994).

• A URL, enclosed in angle brackets, may be used instead of the command-pathway elements
Model:
Bruckman, Amy. "Approaches to Managing Deviant Behavior in Virtual
Communities." ftp://ftp.media.mit.edu/pub/asb/papers/deviance-chi-94 (4 Dec. 1994).


2. World Wide Web (WWW) Sites
To cite files available for viewing/downloading via the World Wide Web by means of Lynx, Netscape, or other Web browsers, provide the following information:
• the author's name (if known)
• the full title of the document in quotation marks
• the title of the complete work if applicable in italics
• the date of publication or last revision (if available)
• the full http address (URL) enclosed within angle brackets
• the date of visit in parentheses
Model:
Burka, Lauren P. "A Hypertext History of Multi-User Dimensions."
MUD History. 1993.
(5 Dec. 1994).

3. Telnet Sites
To cite telnet sites and files available via the telnet protocol, provide the following information:
• the author's name (if known)
• the title of the document (if shown) in quotation marks
• the title of the full work if applicable in italics
• the date of publication (if available), followed by a period
• the complete telnet address, with no closing punctuation
• directions to access the publication
• the date of visit in parentheses
Model:
Gomes, Lee. "Xerox's On-Line Neighborhood: A Great Place to Visit."
Mercury News. 3 May 1992. telnet lamba.parc.xerox.com 8888,
@go #50827, press 13 (5 Dec. 1994).

4. Synchronous Communications
To cite synchronous communications such as those posted in MOOs, MUDs, IRCs, etc., provide the following information:
• the name of the speaker(s) (if known)
• type of communication (i.e., Group Discussion, Personal Interview)
• the address if applicable
• the date in parentheses
Models:
Harnack, Andrew. Group Discussion. telnet moo.du.org/port=8888 (4 Apr. 1996).
WorldMOO Christmas Party. telnet world.sensemedia.net 1234 (24 Dec. 1994).

5. GOPHER Sites
To cite information obtained by using gopher search protocols, provide the following information:
• the author's name
• the title of the document in quotation marks
• any print publication information, italicized where appropriate
• the gopher path followed to access the information, with slashes to indicate menu selections, or full http address (URL) enclosed within angle brackets
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Quittner, Joshua. "Far Out: Welcome to Their World Built of MUD."
Published in Newsday 7 Nov. 1993. gopher University of
Koeln/About MUDs, MOOs, and MUSEs in Education/Selected Papers/newsday
(5 Dec. 1994).

6. Listserv messages
To cite information posted on listservs, provide the following information:
• the author's name (if known)
• the author's e-mail address, enclosed in angle brackets
• the subject line from the posting in quotation marks
• the date of publication
• the address of the listserv, enclosed in angle brackets
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Seabrook, Richard H. C. "Community and Progress."
22 Jan. 1994. (22 Jan. 1994).
To cite a file archived at a listserv or Web address, provide the following information after the publication date:
• the list address (rather than a particular message-author's address) as the source of a list message, enclosed in angle brackets
• the appropriate address for the list's archive (indicated by via), enclosed in angle brackets
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Seabrook, Richard H. C. "Community and Progress."
22 Jan. 1994.
via (29 Jan. 1994).

7. Newsgroup (USENET) messages
To cite information posted by participants in newgroup discussions, provide the following information:
• the author's name (if known)
• the author's e-mail address, enclosed in angle brackets
• the subject line from the posting in quotation marks
• the date of publication
• the name of the newsgroup, enclosed in angle brackets
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Slade, Robert. "UNIX Made Easy."
26 Mar. 1996. (31 Mar. 1996).

8. E-mail messages
To cite electronic mail correspondence, provide the following information:
• the author's name
• the author's e-mail address, enclosed in angle brackets
• the subject line from the posting in quotation marks
• the date of publication
• the kind of communication (i.e., personal e-mail, distribution list, office communication)
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Franke, Norman. "SoundApp 2.0.2."
29 Apr. 1996. Personal e-mail. (3 May 1996).

9. Linkage data
To cite a specific file and provide additional information concerning its contextual linkage, provide the following:
• the author's name (if known)
• the title of the document
• linkage to linked site by using the abbreviation Lkd. (meaning "linked from")
• the title of the source document to which it is linked, in italics
• additional linkage details, if applicable, prefaced with the word at
• the URL for the source document, enclosed in angle brackets
• the date of access in parentheses
Model:
Miller, Allison. "Allison Miller's Home Page." Lkd. EKU Honors Program
Home Page, at "Personal Pages."
(11 Nov. 1995).

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Return to table of contents for this document
Date of last revision: 10 June 1996 Kairos: A Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed Environments.

Vol. 1 No. 2 Summer 1996

MAZHAB-MAZHAB FILSAFAT PENDIDIKAN

MAZHAB-MAZHAB FILSAFAT PENDIDIKAN

Filsafat pendidikan merupakan terapan dari filsafat umum, maka salam membahas filsafat pendidikan akamn berangkat dari filsafat. Dalam arti, filsafat pendidikan pada dasarnya menggunakan cara kerja filsafat dan akan menggunakan hasil-hasil dari filsafat, yaitu berupa hasil pemikiran manusia tentang realitas, pengetahuan, dan nilai.
Dalam filsafat terdapat berbagai mazhab, aliran-aliran, seperti materialisme, idealisme, realisme, pragmatisme, dan lain-lain. Karena filsafat pendidikan merupakan terapan dari filsafat, sedangkan filsafat beraneka ragam alirannya, maka dalam filsafat pendidikan pun kita akan temukan berbagai aliran, sekurang-kurnagnya sebanyak aliran filsafat itu sendiri.
Brubacher (1950) mengelompokkan filsafat pendidikan pada dua kelompok besar, yaitu filsafat pendidikan “progresif” dan filsafat pendidikan “ Konservatif”. Yang pertama didukung oleh filsafat pragmatisme dari John Dewey, dan romantik naturalisme dari Roousseau. Yang kedua didsari oleh filsafat idealisme, realisme humanisme (humanisme rasional), dan supernaturalisme atau realisme religius. Filsafat-filsafat tersebut melahirkan filsafat pendidikan esensialisme, perenialisme, dan sebagainya.
Berikut aliran-aliran dalam filsafat pendidikan:

1. Filsafat Pendidikan Idealisme
Filsafat idealisme memandang bahwa realitas akhir adalah roh, bukan materi, bukan fisik. Pengetahuan yang diperoleh melaui panca indera adalah tidak pasti dan tidak lengkap. Aliran ini memandang nilai adalah tetap dan tidak berubah, seperti apa yang dikatakan baik, benar, cantik, buruk secara fundamental tidak berubah dari generasi ke generasi. Tokoh-tokoh dalam aliran ini adalah: Plato, Elea dan Hegel, Emanuael Kant, David Hume, Al Ghazali

2. Filsafat Pendidikan Realisme
Realisme merupakan filsafat yang memandang realitas secara dualitis. Realisme berpendapat bahwa hakekat realitas ialah terdiri atas dunia fisik dan dunia ruhani. Realisme membagi realitas menjadi dua bagian, yaitu subjek yang menyadari dn mengetahui di satu pihak dan di pihak lainnya adalah adanya realita di luar manusia, yang dapat dijadikan objek pengetahuan manusia.

Beberapa tokoh yang beraliran realisme: Aristoteles, Johan Amos Comenius, Wiliam Mc Gucken, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Galileo, David Hume, John Stuart Mill

3. Filsafat Pendidikan Materialisme

Materialisme berpandangan bahwa hakikat realisme adalah materi, bukan rohani, spiritual atau supernatural. Beberapa tokoh yang beraliran materialisme: Demokritos, Ludwig Feurbach
4. Filsafat Pendidikan Pragmatisme
Pragmatisme dipandang sebagai filsafat Amerika asli. Namun sebenarnya berpangkal pada filsafat empirisme Inggris, yang berpendapat bahwa manusia dapat mengetahui apa yang manusia alami.Beberapa tokoh yang menganut filsafat ini adalah: Charles sandre Peirce, wiliam James, John Dewey, Heracleitos.
5. Filsafat Pendidikan Eksistensialisme
Filsafat ini memfokuskan pada pengalaman-pengalaman individu. Secara umum, eksistensialisme menekankn pilihan kreatif, subjektifitas pengalaman manusia dan tindakan kongkrit dari keberadaan manusia atas setiap skema rasional untuk hakekat manusia atau realitas. Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini : Jean Paul Satre, Soren Kierkegaard, Martin Buber, Martin Heidegger, Karl Jasper, Gabril Marcel, Paul Tillich
6. Filsafat Pendidikan Progresivisme
Progresivisme bukan merupakan bangunan filsafat atau aliran filsafat yang berdiri sendiri, melainkan merupakan suatugerakan dan perkumpulan yang didirikan pada tahun 1918. Aliran ini berpendapat bahwa pengetahuan yang benar pada masa kini mungkin tidak benar di masa mendatang. Pendidikan harus terpusat pada anak bukannya memfokuskan pada guru atau bidang muatan.
Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini : George Axtelle, william O. Stanley, Ernest BayleLawrence B.Thomas, Frederick C. Neff
7. Filsafat Pendidikan esensialisme
Esensialisme adalah suatu filsafat pendidikan konservatif yang pada mulanya dirumuskan sebagai suatu kritik pada trend-trend progresif di sekolah-sekolah. Mereka berpendapat bahwa pergerakan progresif telah merusak standar-standar intelektual dan moral di antara kaum muda.Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini: william C. Bagley, Thomas Briggs, Frederick Breed dan Isac L. Kandell
8. Filsafat Pendidikan Perenialisme
Merupakan suatu aliran dalam pendidikan yang lahir pada abad kedua puluh. Perenialisme lahir sebagai suatu reaksi terhadap pendidikan progresif. Mereka menentang pandangan progresivisme yang menekankan perubahan dan sesuatu yang baru. Perenialisme memandang situasi dunia dewasa ini penuh kekacauan, ketidakpastian, dan ketidakteraturan, terutama dalam kehidupan moral, intelektual dan sosio kultual. Oleh karena itu perlu ada usaha untuk mengamankan ketidakberesan tersebut, yaitu dengan jalan menggunakan kembali nilai-nilai atau prinsip-prinsip umum yang telah menjadi pandangan hidup yang kukuh, kuat dan teruji. Beberapa tokoh pendukung gagasan ini adalah: Robert Maynard Hutchins dan ortimer Adler
9. Filsafat Pendidikan rekonstruksionisme
Rekonstruksionisme merupakan kelanjutan dari gerakan progresivisme. Gerakan ini lahir didasarkan atas suatu anggapan bahwa kaum progresif hanya memikirkan dan melibatkan diri dengan masalah-masalah masyarakat yang ada sekarang. Rekonstruksionisme dipelopori oleh George Count dan Harold Rugg pada tahun 1930, ingin membangun masyarakat baru, masyarakat yang pantas dan adil.Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini: Caroline Pratt, George Count, Harold Rugg.

PEMIKIRAN PARA TOKOH PENDIDIKAN ISLAM

I. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN IBN MISKAWAIH
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Ibn Miskawaih
Nama lengkap beliau adalah Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Ya’kub Ibn Miskawaih. Ia lahir pada tahun 320 H/932 M. di Rayy, dan meninggal di Isfahan pada tanggal 9 shoffar tahun 412 H/16 februari 1030 M. Ia hidup pada masa pemerintahan dinasti Buaihi (320-450 H/932-1062 M) yang sebagian besar pemukanya bermadzhab Syi’ah.

B. Konsep Pendidikan Ibn Miskawaih
Pada dasarnya untuk memahami pemikiran Ibn Miskawaih tentunya tidak bisa dilepaskan dari konsepnya tentang manusia dan akhlaq. Berikut uraianya :
1. Konsep Manusia
Ibnu Maskawaih memandang bahwa manusia sebagai makhluq yang memiliki macam-macam daya. Yaitu :
a. Daya nafsu (Sebagai daya terendah yang berasal dari unsur materi)
b. Daya berani (Sebagai daya tengah yang juga berasal dari unsur materi )
c. Daya berpikir (Sebagai daya tertinggi yang berasal dari ruh Tuhan)
Dari beberapa pembagian tentang manusia tersebut, ibn Miskawaih mempunyai pandangan bahwa daya nafsu dan daya berani akan hacur bersama badan, akan tetapi daya berpikir tidak akan pernah mengalami kehancuran.

2. Konsep Akhlaq
Konsep akhlaq yang di tawarakan oleh Ibn Miskawaih lebih di dasarkan pada doktrik jalan tengah. Dengan pengertian bahwa jalan tengah adalah dengan keseimbangan, moderat, harmoni, utama, atau posisi tengah diantara dua ekstrem. Akan tetapi Ibn Miskawaih lebih menitik beratkan pada posisi tengah antara ekstrem kelebihan dan ekstreem kekurangan masing-msing jiwa manusia. Dari keterangan diatas dapat ditarik sebuah pemahaman bahwa ibn Miskawaih lebih memberi tekanan pada pribadi.
Menurut Ibn Miskawaih, jiwa manusia di bagi menjadi menjdi tiga, yakni :
a. al-bahimiyyah, yaitu menjaga diri dari perbuatan dosa dan maksiat
b. al-ghadabiyah, yaitu kebernian yang diperhitungkan dengan masak untung ruginya.
c. an-nathiqah. Yaitu kebijaksanaan.
Ibn Miskawaih menegaskan bahwa setiap keutamaan memiliki dua sisi yang ekstreem. Yang tengah bersifat terpuji dan yang ekstrem bersifat tercela.



3. Konsep Pendidikan
3.1. Tujuan Pendidikan Akhlaq
Adapun tujuan pendidikan akhlaq adalah terwujudya sikap batin yang mampu mendorong secara spontan untuk melahirkan perbuatan yang baik. Sehingga mencapai kesempurnaan dan memperoleh kebahagiaan sejati.
3.2. Materi Pendidikan Akhlaq
Untuk mencapai tujuan yang di rumuskan oleh ibn maskawaih tentunya ada beberapa hal yang perlu dipelajari dan dipraktekkan. Sejalan dengan pemikiran tersebut, Ibn maskawaih menyebutkan tiga pokok yang dapat dipahami sebagai meteri pendidikan akhlaqnya, yakni :
a. Hal-hal yang wajib bagi kebutuhan manusia
b. Hal-hal yang wajib bagi jiwa
c. Hal-hal yang wajib bagi hubunganya dengan manusia.
3.3. Pendidik dan Anak Didik
Keberadaan pendidik (Guru) merupakan instrumen yang sangat penting, begitupun keberadaan anak didik. Keduanya dapat menciptakan sinergitas untuk membangun pendidikan. Akan tetapi, Ibn Maskawaih juga menerangkan bahwa keberadaan orang tua merupakan bagian dari instrumen pendidikan yang penting pula.
Terkait dengan pendidik, Ibn Maskawaih menempatkan posisi yang tinggi itu adalah guru yang berderjat mu’allim al-misal, al-hakim, atau al-mu’allim al-hikmat.
3.4. Lingkungan Pendidikan
Seperti yang telah dikemukakan sebelumnya, Ibn Maskawaih Berpendapat bahwa usaha untuk mencapai kebahagiaan tidak dapat dilakukan sendiri, tetapi harus bersama atas dasar saling menolong dan saling melengkapi. Maka, sebagai makhluk sosial, manusia memerlukan kondisi yang baik diuar dirinya, yakni lingkungan. Karena lingkungan yang baik akan turut serta dalam menentukan proses pendidikan.
3.5. Metodologi Pendidikan
Dalam hal ini Ibn Maskawaih lebih menitik beratkan pada metodologi perbaikan akhlaq. Seperti beberapa metode yang di ajukan oleh Ibn Maskawaih dalam mencpai akhlaq yang baik, yaitu :
a. Adanya kemauan yang bersungguh-sungguh untuk berlatih terus menerus dan menahan diri untuk memperoleh keutamaan dan kesopanan yang sebenarnya sesuai dengan keutamaan jiwa.
b. Dengan menjadikan semua pengetahuan dan pengalaman orang lain sebagai cermin bagi dirinya. Tentunya pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang baik.

II. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN AL-QABISI
A. Sekilas tentang riwayat Al-Qabisi
Nama lengkapnya adalah Abu Hasan Ali bin Muhammad Khalaf al-ma’rifi al-Qabisi. Ia lahir di Kairawan, Tunisia, pada bulan rojab, tahun 224 H. Bertepatan dengan 13 mei tahun 936M. Ia pernah merantau ke beberapa negara timur tengah pada tahun 553 H/963 M. Selama 5 tahun, kemudian kembali ke negeri asalya dan meninggal dunia pada tanggal 3 rabi’ul awal 403 H.




B. Konsep Pendidikan Al-Qabisi
Selain ahli dalam bidang hadits dan fiqh, Al-Qabisi juga di kenal ahli dalam pendidikan. Hal ini dapat diketahui mealui beberapa pemikiranya dibawah ini :
1. Pendidikan Anak-anak
Al-Qabisi memiiki perhatian yang besar terhdap pendidikan anak-anak yang berlangsung di kutab-kutab. Menurut beliau mendidik anak-anak merupakan upaya yang amat setrategis dalam rangka menjaga kelangsungan bangsa dan negara. Adapun instrumen penting dalam mendidik anak adalah guru yang tidak hanya menguasai berbagai materi pelajaran dan cara penyampaian, lebih dari itu juga di barengi dengan budi pekerti yang mulia dan mempunyai teladan baik
2. Tujuan Pendidikan
Adapun tujuan pendidikan yang dikemukakan oleh Al-Qabisi adalah pendidikan mampu untuk menumbuh kembangkan pribadi anak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai Islam yang benar serta mampu untuk membekali anak dengan kertampilan dan keahlian yang nantinya dapat mendukung kemampuan dalam mencari nafkah.
3. Kurikulum
Dilihat dari sisi pelaran (kurikulum) yang di ajarkan kepada anak didik, Al-Qabisi membagi kuurikulum kedalam dua bagian, dengan uraian sebagai berikut :
3.1. Kurikulum Ijbari
Kurikulum ijbari secara harfiah berarti kurikulum yang merupakan keharusan bagi setiap anak. Kurikulum ini terdiri dari kandungan ayat-ayat Al-Qur’an seperti sembahyang dan do’a - do’a, ditambah dengan penguasaan terhadap ilmu nahwu dan bahasa arab yang keduanya mrupakan persyaratan mutlak untuk memantabkan bacaan Al-Qur’an, tulisan dan hafalan Al-Qur’an.
3.2. Kurikulum Ihtiyari
Kurikulum ini berisi ilmu hitung dan seluruh ilmu nahwu, bahasa arab, syair, kisah-kisah masyarakat Arab, sejarah islam, ilmu nahwu dan bahasa arab lengkap.
Dalam kurikulum ini, Al-Qabisi lebih menekankan pada materi tentang ketrampilan yang dapat menghasilkan produksi kerja dan mampu membiayai hidupnya dimasa yang akan datang.

4. Metode dan Tehnik Belajar
Selain membicarakan tentang kurikulum, Al-Qabisi juga berbicara tentang metode dan tehnik mempelajari mata pelajaran yang terdapat dalam kurikulum tersebut. Misalnya tentang metode menghafal Al-Qur’an, menurut beliau menghfal dan menulis Al-Qur’an ditetapkan atas pemilihan waktu yang terbaik yaitu pada waktu pagi-pagi selama seminggu terus menerus dan bari istirahat sejak waktu setelah dhuhur hari kamis sampai hari jum’at. Kemudian belajar lagi pada hari sabtu pagi hingga minggu berikutnya. Dan Al-Qabisi juga sangat detail dalam memperhatikan waktu.
5. Percampuran Belajar Antara Murid Laki-laki dan Perempuan
Percampuran belajar antara laki-laki dan perempuan juga menjadi perhatian Al-Qabisi. Beliau tidak setuju jika ada percampuran karena tidak baik bagi anak-anak. Jika ditelisik secara seksama, anak remaja yang mengalami fase puberts masih belum memliki ketenangan jiwa dan dihawatirkan adanya kerusakan pada moral.

6. Demokrasi dalam pendidikan
Dalam hal ini Al-Qabisi mempunyai pandangan bahwa anak-anak yang masuk dalam kuttab tidak ada perbedaan derajat atau martabat. Baginya, pendidikan adalah hak setiap orang tanpa menutup pengecualian
Untuk mendukung terlaksananya demokrasi, Al-Qabisi menganjurkan agar orang-orang Islam yang berkemampuan material hendaknya mau membantu biaya pendidikan bagi anak-anak yang kurang mampu.

III. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN AL-MAWARDI
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Al-Mawardi
Nama lengkapnya adalah Abu Al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammd Ibn Habib Al-Basyri. Ia dilahirkan di Basyrah pda tahun 364 H. Bertepatan dengan tahun 974 M. Beliau wafat di Baghdad pada tahun 450 H / 1058 M.

B. Pemikiran Al-Mawardi dalam Bidang Pendidikan
Pemikiran Al-Mawardi dalam bidang pendidikan sebagian besar terkonsentrasikan pada masalah etika hubungan antara guru dan murid dalam proses belajar mengajar. Dalam pandangan Al-Mawardi, seorang guru yang memiliki sikap tawadlu (rendah hati) serta menjauhi sikap ujub (besar kepala).
Selanjutnya, selain sikap tawadlu juga harus bersikap ihlas serta mencintai tugas-tugasnya sebagai seoang guru. Al-Mawardi juga melarang seorang mengajar dan mendidik atas dasar motif ekonmi. Dalam pandanganya, menajar dan mendidik merupakan aktifitas keilmuan dan tidak dapat disejajarkan dengan materi.
Dalam hal ikhlas, sorang guru diharapkan untuk dapat melaksanakan tugsnya dengan profesional. Hal ini ditandai oleh beberapa sikap sebagai berikut :
1. Selalu mempersiapkan segala sesuatu yang diperlukan gna mendukung pelaksanaan proses belajar mengjajar.
2. Disiplin terhadap peraturan waktu
3. Penggunaan waktu luang akan diarahkan untuk kepentingan profesionalnya.
4. Ketekunan dan keuletan dalam menjalankan tugasnya.
5. Memiliki daya kreasi dan inofsi yang tinggi.

IV. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN IBN SINA
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Ibn Sina
Nama lengkapnya adalah Abu ‘Ali Al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah. Beliau lahir pada tahun 370 H / 980 M di Afshana, suatu daerah yang terletak di dekat Bukhara, dikawasan asia tengah. Ayahnya bernama Abdullah dari Balkh, Suatu kota termasyhur dikalangan orang-orang Yunani.

B. Konsep Pendidikan Ibn Sina
Pemikiran Ibn Sina dalam hal pendidikan antara lain berkenan dengan tujuan pendidikan, kurikulum, metode pengajaran, guru dan pelaksanaan hukuman dalam pendidikan.
1. Tujuan Pendidikan
Menurut ibn Sina, tujuan pendidikan harus diarahkan pada pengembangan seluruh potensi yang dimiliki seseorang kearah perkembanganya yang sempurna, yaitu perkembangan fisik, intelektual dan budi pekerti. Selain itu, pendidikan harus mampu untuk mempersiapkan seseorang untuk dapat hidup bermasyarakat secara bersama-sama dengan melakukan pekerjaan atau keahlian yang dipilihnya sesuai dengan bakat, kesiapan, kecenderungan dan potensi yang dimilikinya.
Khusus mengenahi pendidikan yang bersifat jasmani, hendaknya pendidikan tidak melupakan pembinaan fisik dan segala sesuatu yang berkaitan dengannya seperti olahraga, makan, minum, tidur dan menjaga kebersihan.
Tampaknya, sekilas tentang tujuan pendidikan yang dikemukkan oleh ibn Sina didasarkan pada pandangan tentang insan kamil (manusia sempurna). Yaitu manusia yang terbina seluruh potensi dirinya secara seimbang dan menyeluruh.

2. Kurikulum
Konsep Kurikulum yang dibangun oleh Ibn Sina didasarkan pada perkembangan usia anak didik. Misalnya untuk usia 3 sampai 5 tahun diberikan mata pelajaran olahraga, budi pekerti, kebersihan, seni suara dan kesenian.
Selanjutnya, kurikulum untuk anak usia 6 sampai 14 tahun mencakup pelajaran membaca dan menghafalkan Al-Qur’an, pelajaran agama, syair dan pelajaran olahraga. Sedangkan kurikulum untuk anak 14 tahun ke atas di bagi menjadi dua, yaitu : pelajaran yang bersifat teoritis dan praktis. Materi yang bersifat teoritis meliputi : ilmu tentang materi dan bentuk, gerak dan perubahan, wujud dan kehancuran, tumbuh-tumbuhan, hewan, kedokteran, astrologi, kimia, yang secara keseluruhan tergolong ilmu-ilmu fisika. Selain itu, juga terdapat ilmu matematika, dan ketuhanan. Selanjutnya, untuk materi yang bersifat praktis adalah ilmu akhlaq, pengurusan rumah tangga, politik.
Dari uraian tersebut, tampak bahwa konsep kurikulum yang ditawarkan ibn Sina memiliki tiga ciri, yaitu :
a. Konsep kurikulum ibn Sina tidak hanya terbatas pada pada sekedar penyusunan sejumlah mata pelajaran, melainkan juga disertai dengan penjelasan tentang tujuan dan kapan mata pelajaran itu harus diajarkan.
b. Strategi penyusunan kurikulum juga didasarkan pada peikiran yang bersifat pragmatis fungsional.
c. Strategi pembentukan kurikulum Ibn Sina tampak dipengaruhi oleh pengalaman dalam dirinya.

3. Metode Pengajaran
Metode pengajaran yang ditawarkan ibn Sina antar lain metode talqin (mengjarkan Al-Qur’an dengan cara memperdengarkan), demonstrasi, pembiasaan dan teladan, diskusi, magang, dan penugasan.

4. Konsep Guru
Konsep yang ditawarkan oleh Ibn Sina berkisar tentang guru yang baik. Guru yang baik adalah guru yang berakal cerdas, beragama, mengetahui cara pendidik akhlaq, cakap dalam mendidik anak, berpenampilan tenang, jauh dari berolok-olok dan main-main dihadapan muridnya.

5. Konsep Hukuman dan Pengajaran
Ibnu sina pada dasarnya tidak berkenan menggunakan hukuman dalam kegiatan pengajaran. Hal ini didasarkan pada sikapnya yang sangat menghargai martabat manusia. Ibn Sina menyadari bahwa manusia memiliki naluri yang selalu ingin disayang, tidak suka diperlakukan kasar.
V. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN AL-GHAZALI
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Al-Ghozali
Nama lengkapnya adalah Abu Hamid bin Muhammad Al-Ghozali. Ia dilahirkan di Thus, sebuah kota di Khurasan, Persia, pada tahun 450 H / 1058 M.

B. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN AL-GHOZALI
Konsep pendidikan yang di tawarkan oleh Al-Ghozali meliputi tujuan penidikan, kurikulum, metode, etika guru dan murid. Berikut uraianya :
1. Tujuan Pendidikan
a. Tercapainya kesempurnaan insani yang bermuara pada pendekatan diri kepada Allah.
b. Tercapainya kesempurnaan insani yang bermuara pada kebahagiaan dunia akhirat.
2. Kurikulum
Menurut Al-Ghozali, konsep mata pelajaran yang seharusnya diajarkan dan masuk kedalam kurikulum didasarkan pada dua kecenderungan sebagai berikut :
a. Kecenderungan agama dan tasawuf.
b. Kecenderungan pragmatis

3. Metode Pengajaran.
Perhatian Al-Ghozali dalam bidang metode ini lebih ditujukan pada metode khusus bagi pengajaran agama anak-anak. Untuk itu ia mencotohkan sebuah metode keteladanan bagi mental anak-anak, pembinaan budi pekerti dan penanaman sifat-sifat keutamaan diri mereka. Pada metode pengajaran Al-Ghozali lebih di tekankan pada pembentukan moral yang baik dan sesuai dengan aturan-aturan agama.

4. Kriteria guru yang baik.
Menurut Al-Ghozali, guru yang dapat diserahi tugas mengajar adalah guru yang selain cerdas dan sempurna akalnya, juga guru yang baik akalnya dan fisiknya..
Selain sifat-sifat umum yang harus dimiliki guru, seorang guru pun harus memiliki sifat-sifat khusus atau tugas-tugas tertentu sebagai berikut :
a. Kalau praktek mengajar dan peyuluhan maka sifat yang harus dimilikinya adalah rasa kasih sayang
b. Seorang guru tidak boleh menuntut upah atas jerih payahnya.
c. Seorang guru hendaknya berfungsi sebagai pengarah dan penyuluh yang jujur.
d. Seorang guru hendaknya menggunakan cara yang simpatik, halus dan tidak menggunakan kekersan, cacian, makian dan sebagainya.
e. Sorang guru harus tampil sebagai teladan atau panutan di hadapan muridnya.
f. Seorang guru harus memiliki prinsip mengakui adanya perbedaan potensi yang dimiliki murid secara individual, dan memperlakukan sesuai dengan tingkat perbedaan yang dimiliki muridnya itu.

5. Sifat Murid Yang Baik
Sejalan dengan tujuan pendidikan sebagai upaya mendekatkan diri kepada Allah. Dengan dasar pemikiran ini maka seorang murid yang baik dalah murid yang memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut :
a. Seorang murid harus berjiwa bersih.
b. Seorang murid yang baik juga harus menjauhkan diri dari persoalan duniawi, mengurangi keterikatan dengan dunia agar tidak mengganggu lancarnya penguasaan ilmu.
c. Seorang murid hendaknya bersikap rendah hati.

VI. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN BURHANUDDIN AZ-ZARNUJI
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Burhanuddin Az-Zarnuji
Nama lengkapnya adalah Burhanuddin Al-Islam Azzarnuji. Dikalangan ulama’ belum ada kepastian mengenai tanggal kelahirannya. Adapun mengenai wafatnya ada dua pendapat yang dapat dikemukakan. Pertama, Burhanuddin Azzarnuji wafat pada tahun 591H / 1195 M. Kedua, ia wafat pada tahun 840 H / 1243 M.

B. Konsep Pendidikan Azzarnuji.
Konsep yang dikemukakan Azzarnuji secara monumental dituangkan dalam karyanya Ta’lil Al-Muta’allim Thuruq Al-Ta’allum. Dari kitab tersebut dapat diketahui tentang konsep pendidikan Islam yang dikemukakan oleh Az-Zarnuji. Secara umum kitab ini mencakup tiga belas pasal yang singkat-singkat, yaitu :
1. Pengertian ilmu dan keutamaanya
2. Niat kala belajar
3. Memilih ilmu, guru dan teman serta ketabahan dalam belajar.
4. Menghormati ilmu dan ulama’
5. Ketekunan, kontinuitas dan cita-cita luhur.
6. Permulaan dan intensitas belajarserta tata tertibnya.
7. Tawakkal kepada Allah
8. Masa belajar
9. Kasih sayang dan memberi nasihat
10. Mengambil pelajaran
11. Wara (menjaga diri dari yang haram dan subhat)
12. Penyebab hafal dan lupa
13. Masalah rezeki dan umur.

VII. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN IBN JAMA’AH
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Ibn Miskawaih
Nama lengkapnya adalah Badruddin Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Sa’ad Allah ibn Jama’ah ibn Hasyim ibn Sakhr ibn Abd Allah al-Kinany. Beliah lahir di Hamza, Mesir, pada malam sabtu, tanggal 4 Rabiul akhir, 639 H/1241 M. Beliau wafat pada pertengahan malam akhir senin, tanggal 21 Jumadil ula tahun 733 H/1333M., dimakamkan di Qirafah. Dengan demikian usia beliau adalah 64 tahun 1 bulan 1 hari.

B. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN IBN JAMA’AH
Konsep pendidikan yang di kemukakan oleh Ibn Jama’ah secara keseluruhan dituangkan dalam karyanya Tadzkirat as-Sami’ Wa Al-mutakallimin fi adab al-Alim wa al-Muta’allimin. Di dalam buku tersebut ibn Jama’ah mengemukakan tentang keutamaan ilmu pengetahuan dan orang-orang yang mencarinya serta etika orang yang berilmu termasuk para pendidik ; kewajiban guru terhadap peserta didik, mata pelajaran, etika peserta didik, etika dalam menggunakan literatur serta etika tempat tinggal bagi para guru dan murid. Berikut uraianya :
1. Konsep Guru / Ulama’
Menurut Ibn Jama’ah bahwa guru sebagai ulama’ mikrokosmos manusia dan secara umum dapat dijadikan sebagai tipologi makhluq terbaik.
Dalam hal ini Ibn jama’ah menawarkan sejumlah kriteria yang harus dipenuhi seseorang yang akan menjadi guru. Yakni :
1.1. Menjaga akhlaq selama melaksanakan tugas pendidikan
1.2. Tidak menjadikan profesi guru sebagai usaha untuk menutupi ekonominya.
1.3. mengetahui situasi sosial kemasyarakatan.
1.4. Kasih sayang dan sabar.

2. Peserta didik
Manurut ibn jama’ah, peserta didik yang baik adalah peserta yang mempunyai kemampuan dan kecerdasan untuk memilih, memutuskan dan mengusahakan tindakan-tindakan belajar dengan mandiri, baik yang berkaitan dengan aspek fisik, pikiran, sikap maupun perbuatan.

3. Materi Pelajaran / Kurikulum
Materi pel;ajaran yang dikemukakan oleh ibn jama’ah terkait dengan tujuan belajar yaitu semata-mata untuk menyerahkan diri kepada Allah. Tujuan semacam inilah yang merupakan esensi dari tujuan pendidikan Islam yang sesunggunya.
Terkait dengan tujuan tersebut, maka materi pelajaran yang diajarkan harus berkaitan dengan etika dan nilai-nilai spiritualitas. Sedangkan urutan mata pelajaran yang dikemukakan oleh ibn Jama’ah adalah sebagai berikut : Pelajaran Al-Qur’an, tafsir, hadits, ulumul hadits, ushul fiqh nahwu dan shorof.
Apabila dibedakan berdasarkan muatan materi dan kurikulum yang dikembangkan ibn jama’ah kiranya ada dua hal yang dipertimbangkan. Pertama, Kurikulum dasar yang menjadi acuan dan paradigma pengembangan disiplin lainya. Kurikulum ini secara secara konkret dijelaskan dengan kurikulum agama dan bahasa. Kedua, kurikulum pengembangan yang berkenaan dengan dengan mata pelajran non agama, tetapi tinjauan yang dipakai adlah kurikulum yang pertama diatas.
4. Metode Pembelajaran
Pada tingkatan metode pembelajaran, Ibn Jama’ah lebih menekankan pada metode hafalan, karena metode hafalan sangat penting dalam proses pembelajaran. Sebab, ilmu diperoleh bukan dari tulisan di buku melainkan dengan pengulangan secara terus menerus.

5. Lingkungan Pendidikan
Menurutnya, lingkungan yang baik adalah lingkungan yang didalamnya mengandung pergaulan yang menjunjung tinggi nilai-nilai etis.

VIII. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN IBN TAIMIYAH
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Ibn Taimiyah
Nama lengkapnya adalah Taqiyuddin Ahmad bin Abd al-Halim bin Taimiyyah. Beliau lahir di kota Harran, wilayah Syiria, pada hari senin 10 rabi’ul awal 661 H/22 Januari 1263. Dan wafat di Damaskus pada malam senin, 20 zulkaidah, 728 Hijriyah/26 september 1328M. Ayahnya bernama Syihab ad-Din ‘Abd al-Halim Ibn as-Salam (627-672H). adalah seorang ulama’ besar yang mempunyai kedudukan tinggi di Masjid Agung Damaskus.

B. Konsep Pendidikan Ibn Taimiyah
Pemikiran Ibn Taimiyah dalam bidang pendidikan dapat dibagi kedalam pemikiranya dalam bidang falsafah pendidikan, tujuan pendidikan, kurikulum dan hubungan pendidikan dengan kebudayaan. Tentunya, pemikiran tersebut di bangun berdasarkan Al-Qur’an dan Al-Hadits. Semuanya itu secara signkat dapat dikemukakan sebagai berikut:


1. Falsafah Pendidikan
Menurut ibn Taimiyah bahwa menuntut ilmu itu merupakan ibadah dan memahaminya secara mendalam merupakan sikap ketakwaan kepada Allahdan mengkajinya merupakan jihad, mengajarkan kepada orang yang belum tau dan mendiskusikanya merupakan tasbih.

1.1. At-Tauhid
Menurut Ibn Taimiyah bahwa hal yang terpenting yang harus mendasarkan falsafah pendidikan adalah at-tauhid, yaitu menyatakan dua kelimah syahadah sebagai pangkal utama ajaran Islam.
Tauhid yang menjadi asas pendidikan itu menurut ibn taimiyah dapat dibagi menjadi tiga, yaitu :
a. Tauhid rububiyah
Meyakini bahwa Allah itu esa, yang menciptakan semua mahluq, mengatur dan membimbingnya.
b. Tauhid uluhiyyah
Meyakini bahwa Allah-lah satu-satunya tuhan yang pantas disebut tuhan, di taati dan dipatuhi segala perintahnya serta menjauhi segala laranganya.
c. Asmma dan sifat
Meyakini bahwa segala yang berjalan dalam kenyataan di alam raya ini merupakan aturan Tuhan.

1.2. Tabi’at Insaniyah
Menurut ibn Taimiyah bahwa manusia dikaruniai tabi’at atau kecenderungan mengesakan tuhan sebagaimana terkandung dalam falsafah pendidikan.

2. Tujuan Pendidikan
Menurut Ibn Taimiyah Tujuan pendidikan di bagi menjadi tigal hal, yaitu :
2.1. Tujuan Individual
Pendidikan diarahkan pada pembentukan pribadi muslim yang baik, yaitu seorang yang berfkir, merasa dan bekerja pada berbagai lapangan kehidupan pada setiap waktu sejalan dengan apa yang diperintahkan Al-Qur’an dan As-Sunnah

2.2. Tujuan Sosial
Pendidikan juga harus diarahkan pada terciptanya masyarakat yang baik yang sejalan dengan ketentuan Al-Qur’an dan As-Sunnah
3. Kurikulum
Dalam hal ini kurikulum dalam arti mata pelajaran dapat dikemukakan melalui empat tahab, yaitu
3.1. Kurikulum yang berhubungan dengan mengesakan tuhan
3.2. Kurikulum yang berhubungan dengan mengetahui secaara mendalam terhadap ilmu-ilmu Allah.
3.3. Kurikulum yang berhubungan dengan upaya mendorong manusia mengetahui secara mendalam terhadap kekuasaan Allah
3.4. Kurikulum yang berhubungan dengan upaya yang mendorong untuk mengetahui perbiuatan Allah

4. Metode Pengajaran
Menurut ibn Taimiyah pada garis besarnya metode pengajaran dapat dibagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu metode ilmiyah dan metode iradiyah. Berikut uraianya

4.1. At-Thoriqoh al-islamiyah (metode ilmiyah)
Ibn Taimiyah menamai metode imiyah karena dengan metode itulah akan dijumpai pemikiran yang lurus dalam memahami dalil, argumen dan sebab-sebab yang menyampaikan pada ilmu.

4.2. At-Thoriqoh al-Iradah
Ibn Taimiyah menamai metode At-Thoriqoh al-Iradah karena metode ini yang menghantarkan seseorang pada pengamalan ilmu yang diajarkanya.

IX. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN ABDULLAH AHMAD
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup Abdullah Ahmad
Abdullah Ahmad dilahirkan di Padang Panjang pada tahun 1878. ia adalah putera H. Ahmad, seorang ulama’ minangkabau yang senantiasa mengajarkan agama di surau-surau, disamping sebagai saudagar kain bugis

B. Konsep Pendidikan Abdullah Ahmad
Konsep pendidikan yang dikemukakan oleh Abdullah Ahmad meliputi tiga aspek yang fundamental, yaitu aspek kelembagaan, aspek metode dan aspek kurikulum. Berikut uraianya :
1. Aspek Kelembagaan
Dalam hal ini Abdullah Ahmad lebih menitik beratkan pada pola pengelolahan lembaga serta menempatkan guru sesuai dengan keahliaanya.

2. Aspek Metode pengajaran
Dalam hal ini, Abdullah Ahmad menfokuskan pada metode debatting club, Yakni metode diskusi. Dalam metode ini memberikan kesempatan yang seluas-luasnya kepada murid untuk bertanya dan berdialog secara terbuka tentang berbagai hal yang menyangkut masalah agama yang pada saat itu masih dianggab tabu dan kurang dianggap beradab.

3. Aspek Kurikulum
Konsep kurikulum yang di bawa oleh Abdullah Ahmad adalah konsep kurikulum pendidikan integrated, yaitu terpadunya antara pengetahuan umumdengan pengetahuan agama serta bahasa dalam program pendidikan sebagaimana tercantum dalam setiap rencana pembelajaran.

X. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN K.H. AHMAD SANUSI
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup K.H. Ahmad Sanusi
Ahmad dilahirkan pada tanggal 3 muharrom 1306 H/18 september 1888M. di Desa Cantayan, kecamatan Cibadak, kabupaten Sukabumi, Jawa Barat. Ayahnya bernama K.H. Abdurrohim bin H. Yasin, seorang pengasuh pondok pesantren di Cantayan. Ahmad Sanusi merupakan anak ketiga dari istri pertama, ia wafar pada tanggal 15 syawal thun 1369H/1950.

B. Konsep Pendidikan K.H. Ahmad Sanusi
Pemikiran Ahmad Sanusi dalam bidang pendidikan dapat diketahui melalui upaya-upaya yang dilakukan sebagai berikut :
1. Upaya Memajukan Pendidikan
Salah satu upaya yang dilakukan oleh Ahmad Sanusi adalah membentuk lembaga pendidikan ibtida’iyah dan Madrasah diniyah. Dilembaga ini diajarkan selain pengetahuan agama juga pengetahuan umum.

2. Sistem, Metode dan Kurikulum
Kurikulum yang yang disuguhkan oleh Ahmad Sanusi adalah kurikulum khusus dalam bidang pelajaran agama. Dalam hal ini pelajaran yang ditekankan adalah pelajaran ilmu tafsir dan ilmu alat (nahwu shorof) Sedangkan metode yang dipakai adalah metode sorogan yang dipadukan dengan metode diskusi.

XI. KONSEP PENDIDIKAN K.H. IMAM ZARKASYI
A. Sekilas Tentang Riwayat Hidup K.H. Imam Zarkasyi
Imam Zarkasyi lhir di Gontor, Jawa Timur pada tanggal 21 maret 1910M. dan meninggal dunia pada tanggal 30 maret 1985. Ia meninggalkan seorang istri dan 11 orang anak.

B. Konsep Pendidikan K.H. Imam Zarkasyi
Secara garis besarkonsep pembaharuan pemikiran Imam Zarkasyi dapat dibagi dalam empat bidang yaitu pembaharuan dalam bidang metode dan sistem pendidikan, kurikulum pesantren, struktur dan sistem manajemen pesantren serta pola fikir santri dan kebebasan pesantren. Berikut uraianya ;
1. Pembaharuan Metode dan Sistem Pendidikan
Diantara pembaharuan metode dan sistem pendidikan yang diterapkan di Gontor adalah menganut sistem pendidikan klasikal yang terpimpin secara terorganisir dalam bentuk penjejangan kelas dalam jangka waktu yang ditetapkan. Hal ini ditempuh oleh Imam Zarkasi dalam rangka meningkatkan efisiensi dalam pengajaran, dengan harapan bahwa dengan biaya dan waktu yang relatif sedikit dapat menghasilkan produk yang besar dan bermutu.
Selain itu, Imam Zarkasyi juga memperkenalkan kegiatan extra kurikuler. Dalam hal ini santri memiliki kegiatan di luar jam pelajaran.

2. Pembaharuan Kurikulum
Kurikulum yang diterapkan oleh Imam Zarkasyi adalah 100% umum dan 100 % agama.

3. Pembaharuan Struktur dan Manajemen Pesantren
Demi kepentingan pendidikan dan pengajaran Islam, Imam Zarkasyi mewakafkan ponpes Gontor kepada lembaga yang di sebut badan wakaf pondok modern gontor.
Selanjutnya, dalam hal ini lembaga badan wakaf menjadi badan tertinggi di pondok Gontor. Badan inilah yang bertanggungjawab untuk mengangkat kyai untuk masa jabatan lima tahun. Dengan demikian, kyai bertindak menjadi mandataris dan bertanggungjawab kepada badan wakaf.

4. Pembaharuan dalam Pola Fikir Santri dan Kebebasan Pesantren.
Dalam hal ini di tanamkan jiwa kepada santri agar berdikari dan bebas. Sikap ini tidak saja berarti bahwa santri belajar dan melatih mengurus kepentinganya sendiri serta bebas menentukan jalan hidupnya di masyarakat., tetapi juga bahwa pondok pesantren itu sebdiri sebagai lembaga pendidikan harus tetap independen dan tidak tergantung pada pihak lain.